The Seven Steps of the Research Process

The Seven Steps of the Research Process

The following seven steps outline a simple and effective strategy for finding information for a research paper and documenting the sources you find. Depending on your topic and your familiarity with the library, you may need to rearrange or recycle these steps. Adapt this outline to your needs. We are ready to help you at every step in your research.

STEP 1: IDENTIFY AND DEVELOP YOUR TOPIC

SUMMARY: State your topic as a question. For example, if you are interested in finding out about use of alcoholic beverages by college students, you might pose the question, "What effect does use of alcoholic beverages have on the health of college students?" Identify the main concepts or keywords in your question.

STEP 2: FIND BACKGROUND INFORMATION

SUMMARY: Look up your keywords in the indexes to subject encyclopedias. Read articles in these encyclopedias to set the context for your research. Note any relevant items in the bibliographies at the end of the encyclopedia articles. Additional background information may be found in your lecture notes, textbooks, and reserve readings.

STEP 3: USE CATALOGS TO FIND BOOKS AND MEDIA

SUMMARY: Use guided keyword searching to find materials by topic or subject. Print or write down the citation (author, title,etc.) and the location information (call number and library). Note the circulation status. When you pull the book from the shelf, scan the bibliography for additional sources. Watch for book-length bibliographies and annual reviews on your subject; they list citations to hundreds of books and articles in one subject area. Check the standard subject subheading "--BIBLIOGRAPHIES," or titles beginning with Annual Review of... in the Cornell Library Classic Catalog.

STEP 4: USE INDEXES TO FIND PERIODICAL ARTICLES

SUMMARY: Use periodical indexes and abstracts to find citations to articles. The indexes and abstracts may be in print or computer-based formats or both. Choose the indexes and format best suited to your particular topic; ask at the reference desk if you need help figuring out which index and format will be best. You can find periodical articles by the article author, title, or keyword by using the periodical indexes in the Library home page. If the full text is not linked in the index you are using, write down the citation from the index and search for the title of the periodical in the Cornell Library Classic Catalog. The catalog lists the print, microform, and electronic versions of periodicals at Cornell.

STEP 5: FIND ADDITIONAL INTERNET RESOURCES

 Nearly everyone is aware of and uses Google and its branches, Google Scholar, Google Books, Google News, YouTube, etc., to search and find information on the open Internet (as opposed to the subscription-only resources you will encounter in steps 2 through 4 above). Here are links to other search engines.

STEP 6: EVALUATE WHAT YOU FIND

SUMMARY: See How to Critically Analyze Information Sources and Distinguishing Scholarly from Non-Scholarly Periodicals: A Checklist of Criteria for suggestions on evaluating the authority and quality of the books and articles you located.

Watch on YouTube: Identifying scholarly journals    Identifying substantive news sources

If you have found too many or too few sources, you may need to narrow or broaden your topic. Check with a reference librarian or your instructor.

When you're ready to write, here is an annotated list of books to help you organize, format, and write your paper.

STEP 7: CITE WHAT YOU FIND USING A STANDARD FORMAT

Give credit where credit is due; cite your sources.

Citing or documenting the sources used in your research serves two purposes, it gives proper credit to the authors of the materials used, and it allows those who are reading your work to duplicate your research and locate the sources that you have listed as references.

Knowingly representing the work of others as your own is plagarism. (See Cornell's Code of Academic Integrity). Use one of the styles listed below or another style approved by your instructor. Handouts summarizing the APA and MLA styles are available at Uris and Olin Reference.

Format the citations in your bibliography using examples from the following Library help pages: Modern Language Association (MLA) examples and American Psychological Association (APA) examples.

    MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 7th ed. New York: MLA, 2009.

    (Olin Reference LB 2369 .G53 2009 [shelved at the reference desk]; also Uris Reference, others)

    This handbook is based on the MLA Style Manual (Olin and Uris Ref PN 147 .G444x 1998) and is intended as an aid for college students writing research papers. Included here is information on selecting a topic, researching the topic, note taking, the writing of footnotes and bibliographies, as well as sample pages of a research paper. Useful for the beginning researcher.

    Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 6th ed. Washington: APA, 2010. (Olin Reference BF 76.7 .P83 2010 [shelved at the reference desk]; also Uris Reference, Mann Reference, others)

    The authoritative style manual for anyone writing in the field of psychology. Useful for the social sciences generally. Chapters discuss the content and organization of a manuscript, writing style, the American Psychological Association citation style, and typing, mailing and proofreading.

 The Stages of Writing Research Papers

1. Identifying and Refining a Researchable Topic or Question

2. Gathering Primary and Secondary Sources

3. Organizing Your Notes and Other Research Information

    What system will you use to keep track of your bibliographies? Your reading notes? The quotations, images, or other specific items that jumped out at you during the course of research? If you are writing about a complex event that unfolds over time, constructing a chronology can be helpful.

    It can be useful to group your materials in a way that relates to your questions and to the story you plan to tell. Try categorizing them so you can easily recall which are more important and which are less important.

4. Outlining

    What relevant background to your subject must your reader have to understand your argument?

    What organizational scheme makes the most sense for your subject and intellectual goals? Chronology is often useful in historical writing, and some historians prize narrative writing. Thematic forms of organization are also very common and can make a lot of sense. If your paper proceeds by way of a comparison, how will that comparison be structured?

    Are there terms you will need to define at the outset? Characters you will need to introduce? Periodization you will need to explain? If so, where should these go?

    Will you be placing your subject in the context of historiography? If so, where in the paper should this be presented? (Some historians devote considerable text to this; some utilize footnotes.) Historiographical questions include: What are the major interpretive debates about your subject? Who are the key commentators on your subject? What makes your approach and argument original and different?

    Outlines are good places to sketch out several kinds of “balance” in your paper.

        Balance between general context and the heart of your research. One common error is to get so involved in telling the background story that you forget to mention your actual subject until page 15! Aim for proportionality in your outline. The most important themes and questions should get the most attention and space.

        Balance between more general assertions and concrete evidence and examples to back those assertions up. Another common error is to gravitate toward either overly general or overly detailed writing. The former results in vagueness that cannot sustain an argument. The latter results in failure to develop an argument at all.

    Remember that evidence helps you answer questions about who, what, where, when, and why.

    Be careful not to expect your sources to do more than they can. Use multiple sources to support a claim you think is especially unusual or controversial. Consider tackling the weakness of your sources directly, anticipating obvious criticism rather than ignoring it.

5. Formulating Your Argument

    What exactly is your subject?

    What exactly is your argument (sometimes also called a “thesis”)?

    Your subject and your argument are not identical. Your argument is the original point you are making, the result of all the thinking you have done during the course of research. It is a claim about the significance of a historical subject (or problem or question) and a promise that you will demonstrate that your approach to the subject–your interpretation--is persuasive and compelling. An argument is more than an announcement about what your subject will be. It is an assertion about what your subject means and why it matters.

6. Writing an Introduction

    The introduction should introduce your subject, state your argument, and reveal for the reader what you plan to accomplish in the paper.

    You can also explain briefly why the paper is organized as it is so that the reader will know exactly what to expect. Think of the introduction as a textual map for an intellectual journey.

7. Drafting the Body of Your Paper

8. Writing a Conclusion

    Return to your argument and remind your reader of the most compelling evidence presented to support it.

9. Revising

    Excellent papers are drafted far enough ahead of time so that you have time to re-read, reflect, and revise–all of which will make your paper better than it would have been without revision.

    Consider asking trusted colleagues to read and comment on your work.

    Think about the overall organization of your paper. Does is flow logically and cohere throughout? Are there bumpy spots that need reworking, better transitions, and reorganization?

    Think about each paragraph. Does it go where you say it will go? Do you offer concrete evidence and examples when you make general points? Is the transition from the paragraph before smooth? Is the transition to the next paragraph equally smooth?

    Think about each sentence: grammar, spelling, punctuation, word choice, etc. Ask yourself if your writing is as bold and direct as possible. Be ruthless about eliminating pompous language, jargon, and fussy constructions. They will not impress your reader or do justice to your ideas.

10. Proofreading

   Use your computer’s spell checker, but don’t stop there.

  Many people find that it is easier to catch errors on paper than on a screen.

  Try reading your work aloud. It can be a little embarrassing at first, but it is a great technique for zooming in on errors, weak spots, and awkward phrases.