BARRIERS TO LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT
1. INTRODUCTION
It is universally
recognised that the main objective of any education system in a democratic
society is to provide quality education for all learners so that they will be
able to reach their full potential and will be able to meaningfully contribute
to and participate in that society throughout their lives. The responsibility
of the education system to develop and sustain such learning is premised on the
recognition that education is a fundamental right which extends equally to all
learners. Exercising this responsibility involves ensuring that the education
system creates equal opportunities for effective learning by all learners.
There is a
critical need to confront an historical assumption in our country that there
are two distinct categories of learners in our country. That is, those learners
who form the majority with ‘ordinary needs’ and a smaller minority of learners
with ‘special needs’ who require support or specialised programmes in order to
engage in some form of learning process. This assumption, which is also evident
in other parts of the world, defined the nature and organisation of educational
provision in South Africa
This assumption
not only serves to divide the learner population, but it also fails to describe
the nature of need which is regarded as ‘special’. Most importantly, this
assumption provides no insight into what has caused the learning breakdown or
why such learners have been excluded from the system. In a country where the
education system is premised on the notion of a rights culture, it is
imperative that the system is able to not only prevent learning breakdown and
exclusion, but that it is also able to promote equal opportunities for
effective learning by all learners. In order for the system to do this it is
imperative that policy aimed at the creation of education and development for
all learners recognises a range of different needs among the learner population.
Most importantly, such policy needs to be based on an analysis of those factors
which ensure that the education system remains inaccessible to a significant
majority of learners and which continue to lead to high levels of learning
breakdown.
In trying to deal
with the many concerns which arise out of these conceptualisations, the
Education White Paper 6 supports the recognition that a range of needs exists
among learners and within the education system which must all be met if
effective learning and development is to be provided and sustained. In
recognising this, it follows that the education system must be structured and
function in such a way that it can accommodate a diversity of learner needs and
system needs. It is argued that it is when the education system fails to
provide for and accommodate such diversity that learning breakdown takes place
and learners are excluded. It is also argued that a complex and dynamic
relationship exists between the learner, the centre of learning, the broader
education system and the social, political and economic context of which they
are all part.
All these
components play a key role in whether effective learning and development takes
place. When a problem exists in one of these areas it impacts on the learning
process, causing learning breakdown or exclusion. Thus, if the system fails to
meet the different needs of a wide range of learners or if problems arise in
any of these components, the learner or the system may be prevented from being
able to engage in or sustain an ideal process of learning. Those factors which
lead to the inability of the system to accommodate diversity, which lead to
learning breakdown or which prevent learners from accessing educational
provision, have been conceptualised by the policy on inclusive education as
barriers to learning and development.
It is only by
focusing on the nature of these barriers, what causes them and how they
manifest themselves, that we can begin to address problems of learning
breakdown and ongoing exclusion. Most importantly, it is only by focusing on
them in this way that we can begin to identify components of the education
system which must be present and supported if quality education is to be
equally provided, promoted and sustained for learners with different needs in
this country. Similarly, such an analysis provides guidance on the nature of
the mechanisms and processes which must be set up and sustained in order to
enable learner needs and system needs to be met.
2 THE
KEY BARRIERS TO LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT
It has already
been asserted that barriers can be located within the learner, within the
centre of learning, within the education system and within the broader social,
economic and political context. These barriers manifest themselves in different
ways and only become obvious when learning breakdown occurs, when learners
‘drop out’ of the system or when the excluded become visible. Sometimes it is
possible to identify permanent barriers in the learner or the system which can
be addressed through enabling mechanisms and processes. However, barriers may
also arise during the learning process and are seen as transitory in nature.
These may require different interventions or strategies to prevent them from
causing learning breakdown or excluding learners from the system. The key to
preventing barriers from occurring is the effective monitoring and meeting of
the different needs among the learner population and within the system as a
whole.
2.1 Socio-Economic
Barriers
The relationship
between education provision and the socio-economic conditions in any society
must be recognised. Effective learning is fundamentally influenced by the
availability of educational resources to meet the needs of any society. In many
countries, especially our own country, there are inadequate numbers of centres
of learning and other facilities to meet the educational needs of the
population. In most cases, inadequacies in provision are linked to other
inequalities in the society such as urban/rural disparities, as well as
inequalities arising from discrimination on grounds such as gender, race and
disability. Barriers result not only from the inadequacy of provision, but also
from policies and practices which are designed to perpetuate these
inequalities.
2.1.1 Lack of Access to Basic Services
One of the most
significant barriers to learning remains the inability of learners to access
the educational provision that does exist and their inability to access other
services which contribute to the learning process. In most instances the
inability to access education provision results from inadequate or non-existent
services and facilities which are key to participation in the learning process.
For example, in many poor communities, particularly in our own country in rural
areas, learners are unable to reach centres of learning because there are no
transport facilities available to learners or the roads are so poorly developed
and maintained that centres cannot be reached. While such barriers affect all
learners in poorly serviced communities, it is important to recognise that
particular groups of learners are more severely affected by these barriers. In
general transport systems which do exist are inaccessible to learners with
disabilities, particularly learners who use wheelchairs. So, for example,
learners with disabilities who should be attending school or who wish to go to
adult education classes are unable to even reach the school or class because
the public transport system which is available is either physically inaccessible
or unwilling to transport them. At the same time they are unable to walk to
school or classes and in this way they are totally excluded from the education
system.
While inadequate
transport remains a key element preventing access to education, other basic
services such as access to clinics also impinge on the learning process. If a
child has a chronic illness, for example, regular medical treatment which may
be needed may result at best in learners experiencing periods of long absence
from the classroom to reach treatment or at worst in learners ‘dropping out’ of
school in order to be hospitalised in a facility where no provision exists for
learning support to continue during the period of treatment. Lack of early
intervention facilities and services also means that many children, especially
those with severe disabilities, are unable to receive the necessary
intervention and stimulation which will equip them to participate effectively
in the learning process. This barrier not only leads in many cases to increased
impairment, but also to decreased capacity to learn, particularly in integrated
settings.
Lack of access to
other services, such as welfare and communication services, also affects the
learning process and leads to learning breakdown or exclusion. The lack of Sign
Language interpreters in public services mean that these facilities remain
largely inaccessible to Deaf learners.
2.1.2 Poverty and Underdevelopment
Closely linked to
the lack of access to basic services is the effect which sustained poverty has
on learners, the learning process and the education system. For learners, the
most obvious result of poverty, often caused by unemployment and other economic
inequalities, is the inability of families to meet basic needs such as
nutrition and shelter. Learners living under such conditions are subject to
increased emotional stress which adversely affects learning and development.
Additionally, under-nourishment leads to a lack of concentration and a range of
other symptoms which affect the ability of the learner to engage effectively in
the learning process.
Poverty-stricken
communities are also poorly resourced communities which are frequently
characterised by limited educational facilities, large classes with high
pupil/teacher ratios, inadequately trained staff and inadequate teaching and
learning materials. Such factors raise the likelihood of learning breakdown and
the inability of the system to sustain effective teaching and learning.
Learners from families where one or more of the breadwinners are unemployed or
poorly paid are also more likely to leave school as soon as possible to go out
to work to supplement the family income. This perpetuates the cycle of limited
skills with fewer work opportunities, increased likelihood of unemployment or
poorly paid work and, thus, ongoing poverty and exclusion.
In considering
the effects of poverty on the learning process and access to education, it is
also important to recognise the link between poverty and disability. People
with disabilities are often those most easily excluded from the education
system and from the labour market and are therefore the most poverty stricken
in any population. Related to these realities is the perception in many
families who have a child with disabilities such a child is unlikely to be
employed or to be in a position to contribute to the family income. At best,
the child is kept back from school until his/her more able-bodied siblings have
been accommodated or at worst, is never given the opportunity to go to school
or to learn. This has, for example, resulted in an affirmative funding approach
in Uganda
2.1.3 Factors Which Place Learners at Risk
Effective
learning is directly related to and dependent on the social and emotional
well-being of the learner. It is important to recognise that particular
conditions may arise within the social, economic and political environment in
which the learner lives which impact negatively on the learner’s social and
emotional well-being, thus placing the learner at risk of learning breakdown.
Such factors either impact directly on the learner or on his/her family or
community. In all cases the learner’s emotional and social well-being and
development are threatened.
A child who is
physically, emotionally or sexually abused is not only emotionally and
physically damaged but such abuse may also lead to the learner being forced to
miss school and eventually to ‘drop out’ of the system. Factors such as substance
abuse may affect the learner or may affect the learner’s family, causing family
breakdown and increased stress. Problems in families and abuse may also cause
children to leave home and live on the streets. For young girls who fall
pregnant while still at school, effective learning breaks down when the
economic implications of having a child force the learner to leave to go out
and work to earn money. The associated stigmatisation and the lack of a
supportive infrastructure for learning and teaching mitigates against being
able to continue attending school and thus engage in the learning process.
Sometimes
learners are placed at risk by conditions arising in the wider society. In many
countries, our own being a case in point, young learners have been subjected to
civil war and other forms of political violence which not only disrupt the
learning environment but also lead to trauma and emotional distress. High
levels of mobility of families resulting from processes such as urbanisation,
the establishment of informal settlements, eviction of farm workers and
families being forced to seek refugee status in safer environments also lead to
disruption of the learning process and, ultimately, to learning breakdown.
The nature of the
centre of learning and its ability to provide a conducive teaching and learning
environment is undermined when the surrounding environment is made unsafe by
high levels of violence and crime. When the safety of educators and learners
cannot be guaranteed learners may be prevented from participating in effective
teaching and learning or these may be disrupted. In this way lack of safety in
the learning environment becomes a barrier to learning and development. A lack
of provision of basic amenities at centres of learning such as electricity and
toilets creates an unhealthy environment which undermines learning and teaching
and places learners at risk.
In recognising
and identifying those factors within the broader environment which place
learners at risk, it is important to recognise that problems such as natural
disasters or epidemics which arise in any society have a significant impact on
learners. For example, over the last decade more and more children and adults
have been affected by the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Many learners have not only had to
deal with chronic illnesses resulting from the disease, but have also had to
deal with the loss of family members, particularly breadwinners.
It is obvious
from the above that the impact of socio-economic barriers is more severe for
those learners who are already excluded or marginalised in the society.
Learners with disabilities, learners living in poor communities, learners
discriminated against on the basis of gender, race, culture or other
characteristics which are used to marginalise people are often subjected to a
range of these barriers, such as the compounded nature of various forms of
discrimination, thus rendering them even more vulnerable and likely to be
excluded or experience learning breakdown. It is also important to recognise
that learning breakdown can perpetuate further breakdown, often manifesting
itself in disruptive and self-destructive behaviour by the learner which also
negatively affects other learners. In recognising the impact of a variety of
barriers on learners and the system it follows that overcoming and preventing
these barriers must involve a range of mechanisms which recognise the needs of
the learner and the needs in the society which must be met.
2.2 Attitudes
Negative and
harmful attitudes towards difference in our society remain a critical barrier
to learning and development. Discriminatory attitudes resulting from prejudice
against people on the basis of race, class, gender, culture, disability, religion,
ability, sexual preference and other characteristics manifest themselves as
barriers to learning when such attitudes are directed towards learners in the
education system.
For the most
part, negative attitudes toward different learners manifest themselves in the
labelling of learners. Sometimes these labels are just negative associations
between the learner and the system such as ‘drop outs’, ‘repeaters’ or ‘slow
learners’. While it is important to recognise the impact which this kind of
labelling has on the learner’s self-esteem the most serious consequence of such
labelling results when it is linked to placement or exclusion. Sometimes
learners are placed in a particular learning environment merely because they
are labelled as belonging to a category of learners for which a particular kind
of educational placement exists. Because the placement has occurred through the
attachment of a label rather than through an appropriate assessment of the
educational needs of the learner or what is required by the system to meet
those needs, the placement may not only be inappropriate to the learner’s needs
but it may also result in the learner being marginalised. This also perpetuates
the failure of the system to change or adapt to meet such needs. Learners with disabilities
have often been placed in specialised learning contexts merely because they
were labelled as disabled. The particular nature of their disability, the
particular educational needs arising from such a disability, such as a
necessary assistive device, or other needs within the system, such as physical
accessibility, are not properly considered. Labelling goes so far as to
sometimes categorise learners, particularly those with severe mental
disabilities, as being ‘ineducable’. Such a label fails to consider what is
needed from the system in order to meet that learner’s needs, whatever their
capabilities and capacity.
Sometimes
negative attitudes and labelling result from fear and a lack of awareness about
the particular needs of learners or the potential barriers which they may face.
Children who are HIV+ have been excluded from attending school with other
children because of the negative assumptions and misconceptions associated with
the disease. Because of poor knowledge of the disease and its transmission,
these children, by merely attending school with other children, are seen to be
placing other children at risk of infection.
Barriers
resulting from fear and lack of awareness may arise from the feelings of
parents or educators themselves. For example, learners with high ability are
often regarded as a threat and therefore face denial of their significant
abilities.
For learners with
disabilities, fear and lack of awareness about disability among some parents
and educators remain a significant barrier to their learning and development.
Such barriers may arise when the child is born. Many parents have difficulty in
accepting a child with a disability. In a patriarchal society the mother is
often blamed for the disability and fathers deny responsibility for the child.
The isolation and marginalisation of the child is exacerbated when and if they
are able to enter into the education system. Very often teachers fear the
inclusion of a child with a disability in their class and respond negatively to
their attendance. Negative attitudes towards disability are picked up by the
other children who further alienate the disabled learner. Many of the negative
attitudes towards disability result from some traditional and religious beliefs
which denigrate disability.
2.3 Inflexible Curriculum
One of the most
serious barriers to learning and development can be found within the curriculum
itself and relates primarily to the inflexible nature of the curriculum which
prevents it from meeting diverse needs among learners. When learners are unable
to access the curriculum, learning breakdown occurs. The nature of the
curriculum at all phases of education involves a number of components which are
all critical in facilitating or undermining effective learning. Key components
of the curriculum include the style and tempo of teaching and learning, what is
taught, the way the classroom is managed and organised, as well as materials
and equipment which are used in the learning and teaching process.
Sometimes
educators, often through inadequate training, use teaching styles which may not
meet the needs of some of the learners. An educator may teach at a pace which
only accommodates learners who learn very quickly. Alternatively, the pace and
style of teaching may limit the initiative and involvement of learners with
high levels of ability. What is taught or the subjects which learners are able
to choose may limit the learner’s knowledge base or fail to develop the
intellectual and emotional capacities of the learner. Such barriers arise when
sufficient attention is not given to balancing skills which prepare learners
for work (vocational skills) and skills which prepare the learner for coping
with life (lifeskills). Some learners are excluded from certain aspects of the
curriculum as a result of ignorance or prejudice. For example, learners with
physical disabilities are often prevented from playing sport or are not given
the opportunity to do so. Similarly, male and female learners are encouraged or
pressurised to take certain subjects at school or at tertiary level according
to their gender because those subjects will equip them for jobs which
stereotypically are undertaken by men or women. What is taught through the
curriculum may often be inappropriate to the learner’s life situation making
learning extremely difficult and ultimately contributing to learning breakdown.
For example, adults involved in literacy training may be taught with the use of
examples which are unrelated to their particular life experience. Materials used
for teaching and learning which constantly reflect only one culture or life
experience, may lead to learners from other cultures and life experiences
feeling excluded and marginalised.
One of the most
serious ways in which learners are prevented from accessing the curriculum is
through inadequate provision of materials or equipment they may need for
learning to take place. Such barriers often affect learners with disabilities
who do not receive the necessary assistive devices which would equip them to participate
in the learning process. For example, blind learners are unable to access the
curriculum effectively if appropriate Braille facilities and equipment are not
available and if teachers are not skilled to teach Braille or use audio
equipment. Lack of provision of assistive devices for learners who require them
may impair not only the learning process but also their functional
independence, preventing them from interacting with other learners and
participating independently in the learning environment.
The ability of
the curriculum to lead to learning breakdown also occurs through the mechanisms
which are used to assess learning outcomes. Assessment processes are often
inflexible and designed to only assess particular kinds of knowledge and
aspects of learning, such as the amount of information that can be memorised
rather than the learner’s understanding of the concepts involved. The
seriousness of such barriers is most obvious where there are large number of
learners who are forced to repeat aspects of the curriculum, even if this means
remaining in levels where the age gap between the learner and the other
learners is significant.
2.4 Language and Communication
A further area of
barriers arising from the curriculum, are those which result from the medium of
teaching and learning. Teaching and learning for many learners takes place
through a language which is not their first language. This not only places
these learners at a disadvantage, but it also leads to linguistic difficulties
which contribute to learning breakdown. Second language learners are often
subjected to low expectations, discrimination and lack of cultural peers.
Educators furthermore often experience difficulties in developing appropriate
support mechanisms for second language learners.
Such barriers can
be particularly destructive for Deaf learners whose first language is Sign
Language. Misperceptions with regards to the morphological, syntactic,
discourse, pragmatic, ‘phonological’ and semantic structures of Sign Language,
which are entirely equal in complexity and richness to that which is found in
any spoken language, often lead to Deaf learners being forced into learning
through the so-called ‘oral’ method, or having to learn through signed spoken
languages (for example, signed English or Tswana or signed exact English or Tswana. Being able
to access Sign Language as the medium of teaching and learning enables these
learners to develop bi- and multi-linguilism through Sign Language as the medium
of teaching and learning.
Communication is
essential for learning and development
in both formal and informal contexts. Learners who are non-speaking due
to the severity of their physical, intellectual and/or mental disability
experience enormous barriers to learning and development. These barriers
arise from the general unavailability of
augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) strategies to enable them to
engage in the learning process, and more often than not find themselves totally
excluded from learning and development experiences. AAC systems could consist of alternative
communications systems, supplements to vocal communication and communication
through facilitators.
2.5 Inaccessible and Unsafe Built
Environment
In many contexts
the vast majority of centres of learning are physically inaccessible to a large
number of learners, educators and communities. Inaccessibility is particularly
evident where centres are physically inaccessible to learners, educators and
members of the community with disabilities who use wheelchairs or other
mobility devices. Such inaccessibility often also renders centres unsafe for
blind and Deaf learners.
2.6 Inappropriate and Inadequate
Provision of Support Services
Particular
enabling mechanisms and processes are needed to support diversity and enable
the education system, including educators and learners, to minimise, remove and
prevent barriers which may exist or arise. Where no provision exists for such
services, barriers cannot be overcome and needs cannot be met.
In some contexts,
however, inappropriate or inadequate support services may contribute to
learning breakdown or exclusion. For example, where the nature of the service
is focused on problems in the learner rather than in the system where the
barrier may exist - such as poor teaching methods - the intervention may
exacerbate the learning breakdown. Similarly, the nature of the intervention
may lead to a learner being removed from a learning environment rather than
addressing the problems which may exist in that environment. Learners who may
require individualised intervention to address barriers to learning may also
not have access to these.
As was discussed
earlier, basic services which may support learners and the system to minimise
and remove barriers or prevent them from arising are often lacking or limited
in poorer communities. This is especially true in rural areas where access to
professional assistance is limited or non-existent. Thus the inadequacy or
unequal distribution of services which do exist may further disadvantage
learners rather than being services which contribute to effective learning.
One of the key
contributing factors to inappropriate and inadequate support provision relates
to the nature of human resource development of both educators and personnel who
provide services to learners and their families. Lack of awareness, service
provision which is fragmented and inappropriate to the context in which it
takes place, demoralisation and a fear of dealing with a diverse range of needs
all result from inadequate and fragmented development of human resources. Not
only does poor provision in this area lead to a dearth of necessary skills and
knowledge but it also contributes to a system which is unable to meet a
diversity of learner needs and prevent barriers to learning and development.
2.7 Lack of Enabling and Protective
Legislation and Policy
Many of the
barriers to learning and development discussed above do not merely arise from
problems occurring in the education system or in the wider society. It is often
policy and legislation governing the education system and regulating the
society which directly or indirectly facilitate the existence of such barriers.
Where such legislation or policy fails to protect learners from discrimination
or perpetuates particular inequalities, it directly contributes to the
existence or maintenance of such barriers. For example policy which is
inflexible regarding issues such as age limits may prevent learners from being
able to enter or continue in the education system, thus leading to exclusion.
Similarly, legislation which fails to protect learners from discrimination and
fails to provide for minimum standards which accommodate diversity allows for
individual practices which may inhibit learner development or lead to provision
which is inadequate and inappropriate for the needs which exist.
2.8 Lack of Parental Recognition and
Involvement
The active
involvement of parents and the broader community in the teaching and learning
process is central to effective learning and development. Such involvement
includes recognition for parents as the primary care givers of their children
and, as such, that they are a central resource to the education system. More
specifically, they are critical components for effective governance of centres
of learning and for facilitating community ownership of these facilities.
Where parents are
not given this recognition or where their participation is not facilitated and
encouraged effective learning is threatened and hindered. Negative attitudes
towards parental involvement, lack of resources to facilitate such involvement,
lack of parent empowerment and support for parent organisations, particularly
in poorer communities, all contribute to a lack of parental involvement in
centres of learning.
2.9 Disability
For most learners
with disabilities, learning breakdown and exclusion occurs when their
particular learning needs are not met as a result of barriers in the learning
environment or broader society which handicap the learner and prevent effective
learning from taking place. Having said this, however, particular impairments
may prevent the learner from engaging continuously in structured learning and
development. Such impairments may render the learner unable to participate in
an ideal process of learning. For example, disabilities such as schizophrenia,
severe autism, severe intellectual disabilities or multi-disabilities may
prevent the learner from being able to continuously engage in programmes aimed
at facilitating learning and development. Some learners also experience
learning breakdown due to intrinsic cognitive or learning difficulties in areas
such as in acquiring skills in literacy or numeracy or in the organisation or
management of their own learning.
2.10
Lack of Human Resource Development Strategies
The development
of educators, service providers and other human resources is often fragmented
and unsustainable. The absence of on-going in-service training of educators, in
particular, often leads to insecurity, uncertainty, low self-esteem and lack of
innovative practices in the classroom. This may result in resistance and
harmful attitudes towards those learners who experience learning breakdown or
towards particular enabling mechanisms.
3. Overcoming Barriers to Learning and
Development
If the education
system is to promote effective learning and prevent learning breakdown, it is
imperative that mechanisms are structured into the system to break down
existing barriers. Such mechanisms must develop the capacity of the system to
overcome barriers which may arise, prevent barriers from occurring, and promote
the development of an effective learning and teaching environment.
Central to the
development of such capacity is the ability to identify and understand the
nature of the barriers which cause learning breakdown and lead to exclusion.
Over and above this, however, such capacity requires a commitment to using and
learning from practices and processes which exist within the system itself and
which have been used or can be used to break down barriers and meet the range
of needs which are present.
With these
considerations in mind the White Paper on Inclusive Education sees it as
critical to identify and analyse the barriers to learning in the South African
education system, but also to identify those mechanisms already in the system
and those which need to be developed which will enable diversity to be
accommodated in an integrated system of education.
Such mechanisms
will include: initiatives aimed at providing for learners who have been
excluded from the system by both the state and non-governmental organisations;
innovative practices for recognising and accommodating diversity; activities
that advocate against discrimination and challenge attitudes; processes towards
the involvement of learners, parents, educators and community members in the
governance of centres of learning; training programmes which equip educators to
deal with diverse needs; curriculum restructuring; organisation and development
of teaching and learning environments; as well as economic and political
transformation supported by enabling and protective legislation and policy.
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