Learning
theories are conceptual frameworks that describe how information is absorbed,
processed, and retained during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and
environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how
understanding, or a world view, is acquired or changed, and knowledge and
skills retained.
Behaviorists
look at learning as an aspect of conditioning and will advocate a system of
rewards and targets in education. Educators who embrace cognitive theory
believe that the definition of learning as a change in behavior is too narrow
and prefer to study the learner rather than the environment, and in particular
the complexities of human memory. Humanists emphasize the importance of
self-knowledge and relationships in the learning process. Those who advocate
constructivism believe that a learner's ability to learn relies to a large
extent on what he already knows and understands, and that the acquisition of
knowledge should be an individually tailored process of construction.
Outside
the realm of educational psychology, techniques to directly observe the
functioning of the brain during the learning process, such as event-related
potential and functional magnetic resonance imaging, are used in educational
neuroscience. As of 2012, such studies are beginning to support a theory of
multiple intelligences, where learning is seen as the interaction between
dozens of different functional areas in the brain, each with their own
individual strengths and weaknesses in any particular human learner
Behaviorism
theory of learning.
Behaviorism,
as a learning theory, is based on a change in knowledge through controlled
stimulus/response conditioning. This type of learner is dependent upon an
instructor for acquisition of knowledge. The instructor must demonstrate
factual knowledge, then observe, measure, and modify behavioral changes in
specified direction. This type of learning is a conditioned response or rote
memorization of facts, assertions, rules, laws, and terminology. The correct
response is achieved through stimulation of senses. The focus of intelligence
development is visual/spatial, musical/rhythmic, and bodily/kinesthetic
intelligence. The purpose in education is to help a learner build initial
schema by adopting knowledge from an instructor through use of the learner’s
senses. This learning goal is the lowest order learning: factual knowledge,
skill development, and training. The term "behaviorism" was coined by
John Watson (1878–1959). Watson believed that theorizing thoughts, intentions
or other subjective experiences was unscientific and insisted that psychology
must focus on measurable behaviors. For behaviorism, learning is the
acquisition of a new behavior through conditioning.
Conditioning
Both
types of conditioning form the core of Behavior Analysis. It has grown into a
popularized practice called applied behavior analysis. ABA differs from
Behavior modification as the latter only used reinforcement and aversive
punishments to modify behavior.
There
are two types of conditioning:
1.
Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to
stimulus.
2.
Operant conditioning, where antecedents follow a behavior which leads to
a consequence such as a punishment, reward, or reinforcement.
Classical
conditioning was noticed by Ivan Pavlov when he saw that if dogs come to
associate the delivery of food with a white lab coat or with the ringing of a
bell, they will produce saliva, even when there is no sight or smell of food.
Classical conditioning regards this form of learning to be the same whether in
dogs or in humans.
Operant
conditioning, or radical behaviorism, also known as the experimental analysis
of behavior, reinforces this behavior with antecedents, rewards and
non-aversive punishments. A reward increases the likelihood of the behavior
recurring, a punishment decreases its likelihood.
Behaviorists
view the learning process as a change in behavior, and will arrange the
environment to elicit desired responses through such devices as behavioral
objectives, Competency-based learning, and skill development and training.
Cognitive
theory of learning.
Cognitive,
as a learning theory, is the theory that humans generate knowledge and meaning
through sequential development of an individual’s cognitive abilities, such as
the mental processes of recognition, recollection, analysis, reflection,
application, creation, understanding, and evaluation. The Cognitivists'
learning process is adoptive learning of techniques, procedures, organization,
and structure to develop internal cognitive structure that strengthens synapses
in the brain. The learner requires assistance to develop prior knowledge and
integrate new knowledge. The purpose in education is to develop conceptual
knowledge, techniques, procedures, and algorithmic problem solving using
Verbal/Linguistic and Logical/Mathematical intelligences. The learner requires
scaffolding to develop schema and adopt knowledge from both people and the
environment. The educators' role is pedagogical in that the instructor must
develop conceptual knowledge by managing the content of learning activities.
This theory relates to early stages of learning where the learner solves well
defined problems through a series of stages.
Cognitive
theories grew out of Gestalt psychology, developed in Germany in the early
1900s and brought to America in the 1920s. The German word gestalt is roughly
equivalent to the English configuration or pattern and emphasizes the whole of
human experience. Over the years, the Gestalt psychologists provided
demonstrations and described principles to explain the way we organize our sensations
into perceptions.
Gestalt
psychologists criticize behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior
to explain learning. They propose looking at the patterns rather than isolated
events. Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to
be labeled cognitive theories. Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive
approach: that the memory system is an active organized processor of
information and that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning.
Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to consider how human memory works to
promote learning, and an understanding of short term memory and long term
memory is important to educators influenced by cognitive theory. They view
learning as an internal mental process (including insight, information
processing, memory and perception) where the educator focuses on building
intelligence and cognitive development.[6] The individual learner is more
important than the environment.
Once
memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory mode and Baddeley's working memory mode
were established as a theoretical framework in cognitive psychology, new
cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and
90s. Today, researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load and
information processing theory. These theories of learning play a role in influencing
instructional design. Cognitive theory is used to explain such topics as social
role acquisition, intelligence and memory as related to age.
Humanism
theory o f learning.
Humanism,
as a learning theory, is based on human generation of knowledge, meaning, and
ultimately expertise through interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence. This
self-directed learning is needs motivated, adaptive learning. Acquisition,
development, and integration of knowledge occur through strategy, personal
interpretation, evaluation, reasoning, and decision-making. The learning goal
is to become self-actualized with intrinsic motivation toward accomplishment.
This learner is able to adapt prior knowledge to new experience. The educator’s
role in humanistic learning is to encourage and enable the learner,
andragogically, by providing access to appropriate resources without obtrusive
interference. The learning goal is high order learning of procedural knowledge,
strategy, reasoning, abstract analysis, and development of expertise. Humanists
include Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Marie Montessori, and William Glassier.
Transformative
learning
Transformative
learning focuses upon the often-necessary change that is required in a
learner's preconceptions and world view. Transformative learning seeks to
explain how humans revise and reinterpret meaning. Transformative learning is
the cognitive process of effecting change in a frame of reference. A frame of
reference defines our view of the world. The emotions are often involved.
Adults have a tendency to reject any ideas that do not correspond to their
particular values, associations and concept.
Constructivism theory of learning.
Constructivism
is a theory to explain how knowledge is constructed in the human being when
information comes into contact with existing knowledge that had been developed
by experiences. It has its roots in cognitive psychology and biology and an
approach to education that lays emphasis on the ways knowledge is created in
order to adapt to the world. Constructs are the different types of filters we
choose to place over our realities to change our reality from chaos to order.
Von Glasersfeld describes constructivism as “a theory of knowledge with roots
in philosophy, psychology, and cybernetics”. Constructivism has implications
for the theory of instruction. Discovery, hands-on, experiential,
collaborative, project-based, and task-based learning are a number of
applications that base teaching and learning on constructivism.
Built
on the work of Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner, constructivism emphasizes the
importance of the active involvement of learners in constructing knowledge for
themselves, and building new ideas or concepts based upon current knowledge and
past experience. It asks why students do not learn deeply by listening to a
teacher, or reading from a textbook. To design effective teaching environments,
it believes, one needs a good understanding of what children already know when
they come into the classroom. The curriculum should be designed in a way that
builds on what the pupil already knows and is allowed to develop with them.
Begin with complex problems and teach basic skills while solving these
problems. This requires an understanding of children's cognitive development,
and constructivism draws heavily on psychological studies of cognitive
development.
The
learning theories of John Dewey, Maria Montessori, and David Kolb serve as the
foundation of constructivist learning theory. Constructivism has many
varieties: Active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building are
three, but all versions promote a student's free exploration within a given
framework or structure. The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students
to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to
solve realistic problems.
Our
frames of reference are composed of two dimensions: habits of mind and points
of view. Habits of mind, such as ethnocentrism, are harder to change than
points of view. Habits of mind influence our point of view and the resulting
thoughts or feelings associated with them, but points of view may change over
time as a result of influences such as reflection, appropriation and feedback. Transformative
learning takes place by discussing with others the “reasons presented in
support of competing interpretations, by critically examining evidence,
arguments, and alternative points of view.” When circumstances permit ,
transformative learners.
Therefore there are some scholar they failed to identify some events which are shown in the scheme of
work such as sport and games ,holidays, public holidays .Also they failed
to indicate that during teaching,
teachers should begin with simple to complex content .Also there are some scholar left behind the
methods of teaching. They tried to
show the topics but they
failed to show the different methods which
teacher s are supposed to
use in teaching the subject.
THEORIES OF SCHEME OF WORK
Behaviorism work under the premise
that learners require some sort of reward or reinforcement for learning. This could
be praise, attention or some other form of encouragements for example a gold Stan
reinforcement should be continuous whilst the students are working. This is
called operant conditioning. Learning is divide achievable tasks, in a step by step
approach, so that the brain remembers what has happened. Learning. Learning is
divide into achievable tasks, is a step by step approach, so that the brain
remembers what has happened. Learning by association also comes under the behaviorist
theory. This is called association also comes under the behaviorist theory.
This is called conditioning. Some of the techniques of behavior would be
prompting role play and positive reinforcement.
Humanism theory that learning occurs
primarily through reflection on personal experience.
According
to htt://geoffpetty.moonfruit.com says that the contribution of scheme of work on process of learning (ful
understanding0 and for correcting the learners misunderstanding) and for
correcting the learners
misunderstanding. It improves results. School improvement research show
that teacher have about three time the
effect on achievement as their managers. So achievement and student’s life
chances, can only be improved if teaching is improved.
It is likely to get commitment to
improvement, subject centered discussion on how to teach well is the heart of a
teacher’s role, teachers usually enjoy being involved in practical development
in their own subject area.
Teams share best practice so the best
teaching methods are available to
all. It raises expectations of teaching quality. Active scheme of work can
raise expectations of what it means to teach well as well, as showing how this
can be done. It store’s best practice it supports beginning teachers. Novice
teachers are given effective methods to adopt and to learn from. It promotes
professional development writing the scheme promotes subjects centered
discussion on effective teaching and so develops staff.
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