A
theory is a fact based frame work for describing a
phenomenon.also the term theory is used with suprising freguency in everyday
life, it often used in mean a guess, hunch or supposition theory based upon a
hypothesis and backed by the evidence. In psychology theory are used to provide a model for understanding human
thoughts, emotions and behaviors.
Learning
theory refers
to a process that brings together cognitive,
emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acguaring,
enhancing, or making changes in one's knowledge,skills, values and world views
(illeris 2004, ormord ,1995) it also thoughts,emotions and behaviours.
Teaching
theory it is the a set of
interrelated constructs,
definitions propositions which present a systematic view of teaching by
specifying relations among variables with the purpose of explaining and
predicting.
The following are the major theorists,B.F.Skinner , Ivan Pavlov ,
Edward Throndike ,John B. Watson (
Behaviourism), Jean Peaget ,Robert Gagne, Lev vygotsky (Cognitivism), John Dewey, Merrill, Levvygotsky, Symour papert, (Constructivism)
Behaviorism Theorist
John
Watson (1878-1959) coined the term "behaviorism." emphasis on
internal states, Watson insisted that psychology must focus on overt
measureable behaviors. Watson believed that theorizing thoughts, intentions or
other subjective experiences was unscientific
Behaviorism as a theory was primarily developed by B. F.Skinner It
loosely encompasses the work of people like Edward Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie,
and Hull. What characterizes these investigators are their underlying
assumptions about the process of learning. In essence, three basic
assumptions are held to be true]
First, learning is manifested by a change in behavior. Second, the environment shapes behavior. And third, the principles
of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed)
and reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be
repeated) are central to explaining the learning process. For behaviorism,
learning is the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning. Behaviourism focuses on the objectively
observable aspects of learning.
There are two types of possible
conditioning:
Classical conditioning where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as
in the case of pavlov’s Dogs. Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes, when
he saw that the dogs drooled without the proper stimulus. Although no food was
in sight, their saliva still dribbled. It turned out that the dogs were
reacting to lab coats. Every time the dogs were served food, the person who
served the food was wearing a lab coat. Therefore, the dogs reacted as if food
was on its way whenever they saw a lab coat.In a series of experiments, Pavlov
then tried to figure out how these phenomena were linked. For example, he
struck a bell when the dogs were fed. If the bell was sounded in close
association with their meal, the dogs learned to associate the sound of the
bell with food. After a while, at the mere sound of the bell, they responded by
drooling. Pavlov's work laid the foundation for many of psychologist John B.
Watson's ideas. Watson and Pavlov shared both a disdain for
"menatlistic" concepts (such as consciousness) and a belief that the
basic laws of learning were the same for all animals whether dogs or humans
the
behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the case of Pavlov’s Dogs. Pavlov was interested in
studying reflexes, when he saw that the dogs drooled without the proper
stimulus. Although no food was in sight, their saliva still dribbled. It turned
out that the dogs were reacting to lab coats. Every time the dogs were served
food, the person who served the food was wearing a lab coat. Therefore, the
dogs reacted as if food was on its way whenever they saw a lab coat.In a series
of experiments, Pavlov then tried to figure out how these phenomena were
linked. For example, he struck a bell when the dogs were fed. If the bell was
sounded in close association with their meal, the dogs learned to associate the
sound of the bell with food. After a while, at the mere sound of the bell, they
responded by drooling. Pavlov's work laid the foundation for many of
psychologist John B. Watson's ideas. Watson and Pavlov shared both a disdain
for "menatlistic" concepts (such as consciousness) and a belief that
the basic laws of learning were the same for all animals whether dogs or humans
Operant
conditioning,
where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a punishment. The
theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F.Skinner and is known as Radical Behaviorism. The word ‘operant’ refers
to the way in which behavior ‘operates on the environment’. Briefly, a behavior
may result either in reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of the
behavior recurring, or punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the
behavior recurring. It is important to note that, a punishment is not
considered to be applicable if it does not result in the reduction of the
behavior, and so the terms punishment and reinforcement are determined as a
result of the actions. Within this framework, behaviorists are particularly
interested in measurable changes in behavior. In operant conditioning we learn
to assoicate a response (our behavior) and its consequence and thus to repeat
acts followed by good results and avoid acts followed by bad results.
Since
behaviorists view the learning process as a change in behavior, educators
arrange the environment to elicit desired responses through such devices as
behavioral objectives, competency -based education, and skill development.skinner’s
operant, instrumental conditioning in operant conditioning, an organism must
first make the desired response and then a” reward’’ is provided. In learning
there is a feedback from reinforcing stimulus to the previous response.
Cognitivism
Since
behaviorists view the learning process as a change in behavior, objectives,
competency -based educators arrange the environment to elicit desired responses
through such devices as behavioral education, and skill development and
training.
Gestalt views
of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive
theories. Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: (1) that
the memory system is an active organized processor of information and (2) that
prior knowledge plays an important role in learning. Cognitive theories look
beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how
human memory works to promote learning. For example, the physiological
processes of sorting and encoding information and events into Short term memory
and long term memory are important to educators working under the cognitive
theory theories of learning play a role in influencing instructional design.
Aspects of cognitivism can be found in learning how to learn, social role acquisition,
intelligence, learning, and memory as related to age.
Educators
employing a cognitivist approach to learning would view learning as internal
mental process (including insight, information processing, memory, perception)
where in order to develop learner capacity and skills to improve learning, the
educator structures content of learning activities to focus on building
intelligence and cognitive and meta-cognitive development
Constructivism
Constructivism
is a revolution in educational psychology. Built on the work of Piaget and
Bruner, constructivism emphasizes the importance of active involvement of
learners in constructing knowledge for themselves...Constructivism emphasizes
top-down processing: begin with complex problems and teach basic skills while
solving these problems. Constructivism explains why students do not learn
deeply by listening to a teacher, or reading from a textbook. Learning sciences
research is revealing the deeper underlying bases of how knowledge construction
works. To design effective environments, one needs a very good understanding of
what children know when they come to the classroom. This requires sophisticated
research into childrens cognitive development, and the learning sciences draws
heavily on psychological studies of cognitive development (e.g., Siegler,
1998). The learning theories of John Dewey, Marie Montenssori, and David Kolb
serve as the foundation of constructivist learning theory nstructivism views learning as a process in
which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based
upon current and past knowledge or experience. In other words, "learning
involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences." Constructivist
learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized
concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a
practical real-world context. Constructivism itself has many variations,
such as Active learning, discovery
learning, and Knowledge building. Regardless of the variety, constructivism
promotes a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure The
teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles
for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic
problems. Aspects of constructivism can be found in self-directed learning,
transformational learning, and experiential learning.
perform
significantly lower than those learning with collaboration and mediation
Students learn through talk, discussion, and argumentation.
TEACHING THEORY
A theory of teaching is a set of interrelated constructs,
definitions, propositions whichpresent a systematic view of teaching by
specifying relations among variables with the purpose ofexplaining and
predicting”. Under this definition main emphasis has been given on the
relationship among teaching variables. The purpose of relationship is to
understand, predict and control teaching tasks. Burner (1964) defines the
theory of teaching as the explanation of “general methodology ofteaching”. B.O.
Smith (1969) gives a statement as a definition of theory of teaching.“ The
teacher who is not theoretically trained will interpret events and objects in
terms of comminutions concepts that have come from the experience of the race
permeated without modelide as about human behaviour. This statement indicates
the nature of theory of teaching. A theory of teaching answers threequestions:
how do teachers behave, why do they behave as they perform and with what
effect. Itapplies for all teachers, for all students and for all situations in
which reaching occurs. It considers the teacher-behaviour, the cause and
student’s learning effect. It explains, predictsand controls the ways in which
the teacher-behaviours affects the learning of students.
A theoryof
teaching must answer the questions of the teaching for efficient learning
Need for a theory of teaching A teaching theory has the
following advantages:
explains the relationship between teaching and learning and
indentifies common factors.
Teaching theory gives the knowledge
about the assumptions of teaching activities which provide guideline for
organizing teaching
The instructional designs can be developed with the help of theory of
teaching.
provides the scientific basis for planning, organizing, leading
and evaluation the teaching.
The classroom teaching problems may be studied scientifically
through the knowledge of teaching theory.
The
pupil-teachers can develop teaching skills and competency by employing the
knowledge given by theory of teaching.
Teaching objectives may be successfully achieved by the use of teaching theory.
The effective teachers enable produced with the use of teaching theory
N.L. Gage suggests that theories of
teaching may be used to increase the understanding, prediction and control of
teaching
Types of teaching theories Teaching theories may be broadly
classified into three categories:
Formal theory (philosophical theory)
of teaching.The
theory which is based upon certain logic, certain metaphysical, epistemological
assumptions and propositions, . The following are the fourphilosophical
theories of teaching, this are ,Meutic Theory of Teaching ,The communication
Theory of Teaching, The Molding Theory of Teaching, and The mutual Inquiry
Theory of teaching.
Descriptive theory of teaching respect of the individual difference
among students at a given age, structure of knowledge with a topic to be
taught, flexibility of sequencing,rate of learning, interests and so on. “Any
subject can be taught effecting in some intellectual honest for any student at
any stage of development,Prescriptive theory of teaching E. Stones and Morries
have attempted to explain the nature of teaching with the help of three types
of related variables:
The first phase includes the teacher
in the analysis of the teaching problems and teaching tests before teaching takes place. It has two
types of tasks one is the analysis of teaching content and
second
is the analysis of the nature of the student’s learning. In the second
Phase decision are made about the interrelationship of the variables deemed appropriate
to teaching objectives.
The third phase concerns with
evaluating the effectiveness and workability of phase two inrelaxing the objective and this consists of
techniques of examination in which varibales have been interrelated in phase
second
Normative theory of teaching ,The normative theory of teaching may
be developed because it is difficult to control the human subjects in
experimental situation. The learning theories have been developed under
controlled conditions by conducting experiments and animals. The normative
theory explains the relationship among teaching variables on the basis of
observations in normal teaching condition. This category has four theories of
teaching: The cognitive theory of teaching, Theory of teacher-behaviour,
Psychological theory of teaching and,The general theory of teaching
Types of education objectives –
Bloom has classified three types of objectives: Cognitive, Affective and
Pschomotor. Tolman has given things to be learned, field cognition mode, drive
discrimination field expectation. The learning theories Normative theory of
teaching The learning theories have been formulated by designing experiment in
controlled situations,therefore they have less generalizability. Teaching
theory should have high generalizabilitybecause it concerns with human
behavior. More rigorous control cannot be imposed by designing experiments on
human subjects. Therefore we need normative theory of teaching. a) The cognitive
theory of teaching 8
9. N.L. Gage suggest that one theory of teaching cannot serve the
purpose of education. There should be more than one theory of teaching because
teaching may be analysed in four ways: Types of teacher’s activity – A teacher
has to lay several roles in teaching. Teaching consists of many kinds of
activity such as philosopher (information Given. Adviser, counselor, motivator,
demonstrator, curriculum planner and evaluatorhave been developed
undercontrolled conditions by conducting experiments and animals. The normative
theory explains therelationship among teaching variables on the basis of
observations in normal teaching condition. This category has four theories of
teaching: (a) The cognitive theory of teaching (b) Theory of teacher-behaviour
(c) Psychological theory of teaching and (d) The general theory of teaching 3
and (2) Descriptive Theory of
Teaching The theory which is based upon empirical evidence and observation is
called descriptivetheory. The purpose of descriptive theory is to predict the
relationship and effectiveness ofvariables of teaching. Gardon and Bruner have
formulated such theories of teaching: (a) Instruction theory of teaching and
(b) Prescriptive theory of teaching(3) Normative. 4. Formal Theory of Teaching These theories
are based upon metaphysical and epistemological propositions. There areearlier
theories which reflects the current social practices. Meutic Theory of Teaching
This theory conceives that teaching process helps to recollect or unfold that
knowledge withquestioning techniques. The teacher brings his knowledge at
conscious level of this child. Thefocus of this theory is on self realization.
The socratic’s method is an essential for this theory.The heredity plays an
important role in teaching process. (a) The communication theory of Teaching
This theory of teaching based upon assumptions that the teacher possesses all
knowledge andinformation which student does not possess. The most appropriate
way for the student is to learnthis knowledge that the teacher presents,
explains, demonstrates and performs in the classroom.This theory further
assumes that the child is like a clean state, the teacher can imprint upon
itanything through his mode of communications. Therefore, it is designed as the
communicationpractical theory of teaching. (b) The moulding theory of teaching
John dewey is the advocate of this moulding theory of teaching confine to
impart theknowledge to the students. The third theory has the focus on shape,
form and mould of thestudents behavior. The basic assumption about the human
nature which this theory takes inconsideration is that human personality is
formed, shaped and moulded by their environment. (c) The mutual inquiry theory
The main assumption of this theory about the nature of knowledge is that the
whole body orrecorded facts as ‘information’ knowledge which in schools and
outside the schools is generallysubstituted for inquiry. True knowledge is
inquiry, used to apply efficient methods and relevantinformation for the solution
problems. 4
5. This theory of teaching is clearly applicable to research and art.
This theory assumes that eachindividual has the capacity to discover new
knowledge with mutual inquiry. It implies that ateacher has a model in his mind
to use in specific situation and student himself selects the modelfor mutual
inquiry.Descriptive theory of teaching Descriptive theory of teaching is based
upon certain propositions and certain observations. (a) Theories of
Instructions A theory of instruction consists of a set of propositions stating
the relationship between, onthe one hand, measures the outcome of education and
on the other hand, measure both theconditions to which the learner is exposed
and variables representing characteristics of thelearner. There are three
models assigned to the three theories of instruction. (1) Gagne’s hierarchical
theory of Instruction (2) Atkinson’s Decision Theoretic Analysis for optimizing
learning (3) Bruner’s Cognitive Developmental Theory of Instruction (1) Gagne’s
hierarchical theory of Instruction Robert M, Gagne has termed from theories of
learning to the practical task of training orinstructional theory. He has
proposed eight kinds of learning: Signal, stimulus-response, chaining,verbal
association, multiple discrimination, concept learning, rule learning and
problem solving.He identified five learning outcome associated with types of
learning they are as follow: Verbalinformation, Intellectual skills, cognitive
strategy, motor skills and attitude. Gagne while emphasizing the need for a
proper theory of instruction proposed that such atheory of instruction must be
based on the hierarchical structure of the events of learning. Whatgoes on
inside the learners mind during the teaching learning process may be termed as
internalevents. This events must be fully taken in consideration while planning
the corresponding 5
6. instructional procedures. This learning events from the angle of a
learner along with thecorresponding instructional events is presented as
follows: Learning event Corresponding instructional events Reception Gaining
attention Expectancy Information learners of the objective Retrieval
Stimulation recall or prior learning Selective Perception Presenting the
stimulus Semantic encoding Providing learning guidance Responding Eliciting
performance Reinforcement Providing feedback Retrieval Assessing performance
Generalization Enhancing retention and transfer Therefore an instructional plan
may thus be properly choked by following the sequences oflearning events. (2)
Atkinson’s Decision-theoretic Analysis for Optimizing Learning. Richart C.
Atkinson came to instructional psychology from the interest in
mathematicallearning theory which he applied to computer-assisted instruction
(CAI). Atkinson Proposed four characteristics which must be satisfied with a
precise derivation of an“Optimal Instructional Strategy”. (a) Model of the
learning process should be involved (b) It should involve specified
instructional actions (c) The instructional objectives should be specified in
behavioral terms. 6
7. (d) Each instructional objective can be measured by Burner advocates
that a theory of instruction is designing measurement scale or questions. This
model is, in fact, a special case of Optimal Control Theory, as it has been
developed inthe mathematical and engineering field. (3) Bruner’s Cognitive
Developmental Theory of Instruction. Burner advocates that a theory of
instruction is prescriptive in that it proposes rules forachieving knowledge of
skills and provides techniques evaluating learning outcomes. It is
alsonormative in that it sets goals to be achieved and deal with conditions for
meeting then. ‘A Theory of instruction’ in short is concerned with how what one
wished to teach can best belearned, with improving rather than describing
learning. This is not to say that learning and developmental theories are
irrelevant for theory ofinstruction. In fact, a theory of instruction must be
concerned with both learning and developmentand must be congruent with those
theories of learning and development to which it subscribes.Burner is insistent
on the empirical steps necessary before the theory can prescribe the practice.
Burner has specified four features that a theory of instruction must involve:
Predisposition tolearn, structure of knowledge, sequence of instruction and
reinforcement. Bruner has specified four features that a theory of instruction
must involve: Predisposition tolearn, structure of knowledge, sequence of
instruction and reinforcement. • Predisposition to learn – A theory of
instruction must be concerned with the experiences and context that will tend
to make the child willing and able to learn when he enters the school •
Structure of knowledge - A theory of instruction should specify the ways in
which body of knowledge should be structured so that it can be most readily
grasped by the learner. • Sequence of instruction – A theory of instruction
should specify the most effective sequences to present the material 7
8. • Reinforcement – A theory of instruction should specify the nature
and pacing of rewards, moving from extrinsic rewards of intrinsic one. Each of
this points require elaborating with motor patterns. Types of learning theories
– teaching might proceed on the basis of different families of learning theory;
philosophical theories of learning (mental discipline, unfoldment,
approbation). Psychological theories of learning: S_R family, Reinforcement
theory and Insight learning theory. Each family suggests different views of
teaching process. Types of components of learning – Neal Miller suggests four
componenets of learning, drive, cue, response and reward. The each component
requires the different types of teaching acticvities. b) Theory of teacher
behavior D.G. Ryan has tried to explain the concept of teacher-behaviour and
formulated a theory ofteacher-behaviour. M. Meux and B.O. Smith have defined
the term teacher-behaviour “Teacher behavior consists of those acts that the
teacher performs typically in the classroomin order to induce-learning”. Theory
of teacher behaviour also explains the relationship of variables, It is based
upon twopostulates. Teacher behaviour is social in nature - Teacher performs
his tasks in group. Teacherbehavior is concerned with the class-room verbal and
non-verbal interaction. In the process ofinteraction, teacher and students both
participate. The initiation and response activities are to beperformed by
teacher or students. They both influence each other. Therefore it is considered
associal behavior. 9
10. Teacher behavior is relative - Teacher’s classroom activities are
based upon socialsituations. Teacher’s activities are the product of social
conditions and are related to the culturalsettings in which teacher performs
the teaching task. Teacher- Behaviour is good or bad, effectiveand ineffective,
it can be judged with reference to a particular culture’s value system and set
ofobjectives. Therefore teacher behavior is a relative concept. c) The
Psychological theory of teaching This theory considers teaching a sort contractual
relationship between the teacher and thepupils. The relationship consists of
certain activities to be performed by the teacher such as :analyzing teaching
task, determining learning goals, identifying entering behavior and
selectingteaching strategy. The teacher formulates teaching tasks by his own
experiences and insight. Hemakes judgment about the pupil’s stage of
development. The teacher locates his positioning thecognitive map. Teaching has
very high values. The value helps others to grow and learn to give one best
fromwhich others benefit, but from which one does not benefit oneself to do
good without expectinganything in return and so on. d) General Theory of
teaching S.C.T. Clarke has formulated a general theory of teaching. It assumes
that teaching is processwhich is designed and performed to produce change in
behavior of students. Teaching activitiescan be very diverse and vary also at
different levels of teaching and objectives. All thesecombinations are possible
in teaching process. This theory limits the teaching activities to thosewhich
are acceptable by a democratic society. 10
ROLES OF LEARNERS AND TEACHERS IN
THE BEHAVIOURISM THEORY.
According to them they suggest
several views as follows ,in the behaviourism
Roles of learners learners are basically just passive
responding to stimuli,in behaviourism there two main theory involve classical
conditions and operant conditions according to Pavlov experiment he was using
dog in its basic premise he said that behaviour can be conditioned by pairing
stimuli with response so in the classical conditioning responses are
involuntary.
Role of teachers he or she used as an instructors,
designins the learning environment, he shaped the childrens behaviour by giving
them positive or negative reinforcement examples when childrens performed well
they get rewards and when they did bad they get purnishment examples B. F.
Skiner used rainforcorcement techniques to teach pigeon
According to B.F.Skiner he
realized that there is a burn on the instructor
to maintain reinforcement he said
“behaviour that is not reinforced is likely
less frequent and may even disappear”
merram and cafferella 1999, p.252.
Key
concept of this theory is concerning with animals and human.
ROLES OF LEARNERS AND TEACHERS IN
THE COGNITIVISM THEORY
Roles of learners the process of learners is to store
and retrieve information for later use, creating association and creating a
knowledge set useful for living, the learners uses the information processing
approach to transefer and assimilate new information
Roles of teachers instructors manages problems solving
and structured and search activities especially with group learning strategies
also instructors provides opportunities to connect new information to schema.
The key key consept of cognitivism focus on the brain how humans process and
store information was very important in the process of learning.
ROLE OF LEARNERS AND TEACHERS IN THE
CONSTRUCTIVISM THEORY
Roles of learners learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or
concepts based upon their currents knowledge social interactions and motivation
affect the constructions
Roles of teachers he was an educators focus on making
connections between facts and fostering new understanding in students,consructivism
also focused in elimination of standardized curriculum instead it promotes
using curriculum customized to the students prior knowledge also it emphasizes
hands on problem solving constructivism focuses on how learners construct their
own meaning they ask questions, develop answers and interact and interpret the
invironment by doing this things they incoparate new knowledge to create new
meaning.
According to piaget how does
learning take place.humans
intelligence and biological organism functions in similar ways they are both
organized system that constantly interact with environment.Knowledge is the
interactions between the individual and environment,cognitive development is
the growth of logical thinking from infancy to adult hood
According to vygotsky component of cognitive development.
He masters the symbols of culture and developing the cultural form of
reasoning,in the complex functions begin as social interactions between
individuals acguire meaning and are internationalized by the learners. Also he
said that speech and other symbols are first masterd as a form of communication
and eventually stricter and manage a child think.
THE FOLLOWING ARE THE COMBINATION OF
CRITISISM TO THOSE THEORIES
The
learners might find himself in situation where he needs to respond but the
mental cues he has learned to respond might not exist,
Behaviorism does not explain some learning
such as the recognition of new language parterns by young children for which there
is no reinforcement mechanism.
Weakness
of cognivitism is similar to behaviourism in the belief that there are only
finite, pre determined goals it means that learner’s and instructor’s may
become satisfied with obtaining minimum competencies or carry the altitude that
‘’if it’s not broke, then don’t fix it’’ when the learning experience could
actually be designed better.
An
instructional designer will needed to ensure that the instruction is
appropriate for all skill levels and experiences
The
learners is markedly at a disadvantage whenever relevant schemas or pre
requisites knowledge do not exist
Designing
such instruction could be coastly and
time consuming also major weakness of cognivitism lies on its strength where as
schemas help to make learning more meaningful
CONCLUSION
Iconclude in saying that according to those
theoristis whose explaining about the theories all they pass on same things but they had the
similarities and they differ in some points because in behaviourism they focus
only on the objectvly observalble aspects of learning, while in cognitivism
theory they look beyond behaviour to explain brain based learning.and also in
constructivism the theorists they based on learning as the process in which the
learner actively constructs or build new ideas or concept.here we see how those
theorists explaining about the different stages of learning through teaching
animals and human being like B.F.Skinner conditioning the peagot and also
piaget pass in stages of learning
childrens, Pavlovs conditioned dogs.
Conclusion The available literature on this topic reveals
that there is no theory of teaching at all. Thereare only models or paradigms
of teaching. Teaching theory is prescriptive. Teachers and pupilsare the major
variables of teaching theory. It is narrow and specific. It is based upon
learningtheory, learning conditions and learning components. While learning
theory are formulated byconducting experiments on animals teaching theory is
developed by dealing with human subjectsin normal situations. It is concerned
with effective learning and development of pupils.References1. Sharma. R.K.
“Technological foundation of education”, Theories of teaching.2. Mangal. S.K.
“Advanced Educational Psychology”, Nature and theories of learning. PHI learning
Private Limited. Pg.235 – 236. 11
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