A
theory is a fact
based frame work for describing a phenomenon.also the term theory is used with surprising
freguency in everyday life, it often used in mean a guess, hunch or supposition
theory based upon a hypothesis and backed by the evidence. In psychology theory
are used to provide a model for
understanding human thoughts, emotions and behaviors.
Learning
theory refers to a process that brings
together cognitive, emotional, and
environmental influences and experiences for acguaring, enhancing, or making
changes in one's knowledge, skills, values and world views (illeris 2004,
ormord ,1995) it also thoughts, emotions
and behaviours .
Teaching theory it is the a set of interrelated
constructs, definitions propositions which present a systematic view of
teaching by specifying relations among variables with the purpose of explaining
and predicting.
The following
are the major theorists, B.F.Skinner , Ivan Pavlov , Edward Thorndike , John
B. Watson ( Behaviorism), Jean
Peaget ,Robert Gagne, Lev vygotsky (Cognitivism),
John Dewey, Merrill, Levvygotsky, Symour papert, (Constructivism)
Behaviorism Theorist, John Watson (1878-1959) coined the term
"behaviorism." emphasis on internal states, Watson insisted that
psychology must focus on overt measureable behaviors. Watson believed that
theorizing thoughts, intentions or other subjective experiences was
unscientific Behaviorism as a theory was
primarily developed by B. F.Skinner It loosely encompasses the work of people
like Edward Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, and Hull. What characterizes these
investigators are their underlying assumptions about the process of learning.
In essence, three basic assumptions are held to be true First, learning is manifested by a change
in behavior. Second, the environment
shapes behavior. And third, the
principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond
to be formed) and reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an
event will be repeated) are central to explaining the learning process. For
behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning. Behaviourism focuses on the objectively
observable aspects of learning.
“ According to J.B.Watson he
said,”Give me a dozen healthy infants, well formed and my own specified word to
bring them up in and I will guarantee to take any one at random and train him
to become any tpes of specialist I might select s docter , lawyer, artist,
merchants, chief and yes even a beggarman or thief”[1]
.
There are two types of behaviorism conditioning:
Classical conditioning where the behavior becomes a reflex
response to stimulus as in the case of Pavlov’s Dogs. Pavlov was interested in
studying reflexes, when he saw that the dogs drooled without the proper
stimulus. Although no food was in sight, their saliva still dribbled. It turned
out that the dogs were reacting to lab coats. Every time the dogs were served
food, the person who served the food was wearing a lab coat. Therefore, the
dogs reacted as if food was on its way whenever they saw a lab coat. In a
series of experiments, Pavlov then tried to figure out how these phenomena were
linked. For example, he struck a bell when the dogs were fed. If the bell was
sounded in close association with their meal, the dogs learned to associate the
sound of the bell with food. After a while, at the mere sound of the bell, they
responded by drooling. Pavlov's work laid the foundation for many of
psychologist John B. Watson's ideas. Watson and Pavlov shared both a disdain
for "menatlistic" concepts (such as consciousness) and a belief that
the basic laws of learning were the same for all animals whether dogs or humans
Operant
conditioning where
there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a punishment. The theory
of operant conditioning was developed by B.F.Skinner and is known as Radical
Behaviorism. The word ‘operant’ refers to the way in which behavior ‘operates
on the environment’. Briefly, a behavior may result either in reinforcement,
which increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, or punishment, which
decreases the likelihood of the behavior recurring. It is important to note
that, a punishment is not considered to be applicable if it does not result in
the reduction of the behavior, and so the terms punishment and reinforcement
are determined as a result of the actions. Within this framework, behaviorists
are particularly interested in measurable changes in behavior. In operant
conditioning we learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its
consequence and thus to repeat acts followed by good results and avoid acts
followed by bad results.
Since
behaviorists view the learning process as a change in behavior, educators
arrange the environment to elicit desired responses through such devices as
behavioral objectives, competency -based education, and skill development. skinner’s
operant, instrumental conditioning in operant conditioning, an organism must
first make the desired response and then a” reward’’ is provided. In learning
there is a feedback from reinforcing stimulus to the previous response.
According
to B. F. Skinner he come up with skinners box contains rat, a leaver and a
divice for delivering a pellet of food and each time the rat press the liver
also he used pigeons and other animals so he said,
“the barest possible statement of the process is this: we make a given
consequence dependent
upon certain physical properties of behavior and the behavior is then observed
to increase in frequency”[2].
Cognitivism Since behaviorists view the learning process as a change in
behavior, objectives, competency -based educators arrange the environment to
elicit desired responses through such devices as behavioral education, and
skill development and training.
Gestalt
views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive
theories. Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: that the
memory system is an active organized processor of information and that prior
knowledge plays an important role in learning. Cognitive theories look beyond
behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how human
memory works to promote learning. For example, the physiological processes of
sorting and encoding information and events into Short term memory and long
term memory are important to educators working under the cognitive theory
theories of learning play a role in influencing instructional design. Aspects
of cognitive can be found in learning how to learn, social role acquisition,
intelligence, learning, and memory as related to age.
Educators
employing a cognitive approach to learning would view learning as internal
mental process (including insight, information processing, memory, perception)
where in order to develop learner capacity and skills to improve learning, the
educator structures content of learning activities to focus on building
intelligence and cognitive and meta-cognitive development
Constructivism, Constructivism is a revolution in educational psychology.
Built on the work of Piaget and Bruner, constructivism emphasizes the
importance of active involvement of learners in constructing knowledge for
themselves...Constructivism emphasizes top-down processing: begin with complex
problems and teach basic skills while solving these problems. Constructivism
explains why students do not learn deeply by listening to a teacher, or reading
from a textbook. Learning sciences research is revealing the deeper underlying
bases of how knowledge construction works. To design effective environments,
one needs a very good understanding of what children know when they come to the
classroom. This requires sophisticated research into children’s cognitive
development, and the learning sciences draws heavily on psychological studies
of cognitive development (e.g., Siegler, 1998). The learning theories of John
Dewey, Marie Montenssori, and David Kolb serve as the foundation of
constructivist learning theory constructivism views learning as a process in
which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based
upon current and past knowledge or experience. In other words, "learning
involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences."
Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby
internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be
applied in a practical real-world context. Constructivism itself has many variations,
such as Active learning, discovery learning, and Knowledge building. Regardless
of the variety, constructivism promotes a student's free exploration within a
given framework or structure the teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages
students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by
working to solve realistic problems. Aspects of constructivism can be found in
self-directed learning, transformational learning, and experiential learning.
Perform significantly lower than those learning with
collaboration and mediation Students learn through talk, discussion, and
argumentation.
TEACHING
THEORY
A theory of teaching is a set of
interrelated constructs, definitions, propositions which present a systematic
view of teaching by specifying relations among variables with the purpose of explaining
and predicting. Under this definition main emphasis has been given on the
relationship among teaching variables. The purpose of relationship is to
understand, predict and control teaching tasks. B.O. Smith (1969) gives a statement as a definition of theory of
teaching.“ The teacher who is not theoretically trained will interpret events
and objects in terms of comminutions concepts that have come from the
experience of the race permeated without mudslide as about human behavior.
This statement indicates the nature of theory of teaching. A theory of teaching
answers three questions: how do teachers behave, why do they behave as they perform
and with what effect. It applies for all teachers, for all students and for all
situations in which reaching occurs. It considers the teacher-behavior, the
cause and student’s learning effect. It explains, predicts and controls the
ways in which the teacher-behaviors affects the learning of students.
“According to Burner (1964) defines the theory of teaching as the explanation of
“general methodology of teaching”[3].
Advantages of teaching theory
Explains the relationship between teaching and learning and indentifies common factors.
Teaching theory gives the knowledge
about the assumptions of teaching activities which provide guideline for
organizing teaching
The
instructional designs can be developed with
the help of theory of teaching.
provides the scientific basis for planning, organizing, leading
and evaluation the teaching.
The classroom teaching problems may be studied scientifically
through the knowledge of teaching theory.
The
pupil-teachers can develop teaching skills and competency by employing the
knowledge given by theory of teaching.
Teaching objectives may be successfully achieved by the use of teaching theory.
The effective teachers enable
produced with the use of teaching theory
N.L. Gage suggests that theories of
teaching may be used to increase the understanding, prediction and control of
teaching
Three Types of teaching theories
Formal theory (philosophical theory)
of teaching. The theory which is
based upon certain logic, certain metaphysical, epistemological assumptions and
propositions, the following are the four
philosophical theories of teaching, this are, Emetic Theory of Teaching, The communication Theory of Teaching, The
Molding Theory of Teaching, and The mutual Inquiry Theory of teaching.
Descriptive theory of teaching respect of the individual difference
among students at a given age, structure of knowledge with a topic to be
taught, flexibility of sequencing, rate of learning, interests and so on. Any
subject can be taught effecting in some intellectual honest for any student at
any stage of development, Prescriptive theory of teaching E. Stones and Morries
have attempted to explain the nature of teaching with the help of three types
of related variables:
The first phase includes the teacher
in the analysis of the teaching problems and teaching tests before teaching takes place. It has two
types of tasks one is the analysis of teaching content and
Second
is the analysis of the nature of the student’s learning. In the second
Phase decision are made about the interrelationship of the variables deemed appropriate
to teaching objectives.
The third phase concerns with
evaluating the effectiveness and workability of phase two in relaxing the objective and this consists of
techniques of examination in which varibales have been interrelated in phase
second
Normative theory of teaching, The normative theory of teaching may
be developed because it is difficult to control the human subjects in
experimental situation. The learning theories have been developed under
controlled conditions by conducting experiments and animals. The normative theory
explains the relationship among teaching variables on the basis of observations
in normal teaching condition. This category has four theories of teaching: The
cognitive theory of teaching, Theory of teacher-behaviour, Psychological theory
of teaching and, The general theory of teaching
ROLES OF LEARNERS AND TEACHERS IN
THE BEHAVIOURISM THEORY.
According to them they suggest
several views as follows ,in the behaviorism
Roles of learners learners are basically just passive
responding to stimuli, in behaviorism there two main theory involve classical
conditions and operant conditions according to Pavlov experiment he was using
dog in its basic premise he said that behavior can be conditioned by pairing
stimuli with response so in the classical conditioning responses are
involuntary.
Role of teachers he or she used as an instructors,
designs the learning environment, he shaped the children’s behaviour by giving
them positive or negative reinforcement examples when children performed well
they get rewards and when they did bad they get punishment examples B. F.
Skiner used rainforcorcement techniques to teach pigeon
“According to B.F.Skiner he realized that there is a burn on the
instructor
to maintain reinforcement he said
“behavior that is not reinforced is likely
less frequent and may even disappear”[4].
Key
concept of this theory is concerning with animals and human.
ROLES OF LEARNERS AND TEACHERS IN
THE COGNITIVISM THEORY
Roles of learners the process of learners is to store
and retrieve information for later use, creating association and creating a
knowledge set useful for living, the learners uses the information processing
approach to transfer and assimilate new information
Roles of teachers instructors manages problems solving
and structured and search activities especially with group learning strategies
also instructors provides opportunities to connect new information to schema.
The key concept of cognitive focus on
the brain how humans process and store information was very important in the
process of learning.
ROLE OF LEARNERS AND TEACHERS IN THE
CONSTRUCTIVISM THEORY
Roles of learners learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or
concepts based upon their currents knowledge social interactions and motivation
affect the constructions
Roles of teachers he was an educators focus on making
connections between facts and fostering new understanding in students,consructivism
also focused in elimination of standardized curriculum instead it promotes
using curriculum customized to the students prior knowledge also it emphasizes
hands on problem solving constructivism focuses on how learners construct their
own meaning they ask questions, develop answers and interact and interpret the environment
by doing this things they incorporate new knowledge to create new meaning.
According to piaget how does
learning take place.humans
intelligence and biological organism functions in similar ways they are both
organized system that constantly interact with environment. Knowledge is the
interactions between the individual and environment, cognitive development is
the growth of logical thinking from infancy to adult hood
According to vygotsky component of cognitive development.
He masters the symbols of culture and developing the cultural form of
reasoning,in the complex functions begin as social interactions between
individuals acguire meaning and are internationalized by the learners. Also he
said that speech and other symbols are first masterd as a form of communication
and eventually stricter and manage a child think.
THE FOLLOWING ARE THE COMBINATION OF
CRITISISM TO THOSE THEORIES
The learners might find himself
situation where he needs to respond but the mental cues he has learned to respond might not
exist,-
Behaviorism
does not explain some learning such as the recognition of new language parterns
by young children for which there is no reinforcement mechanism.
Weakness of cognivitism is similar
to behaviourism in the belief that there are only finite, pre determined goals it means that
learner’s and instructor’s may become satisfied with obtaining minimum competencies or carry the
altitude that ‘’if it’s not broke, then don’t fix it’’ when the learning
experience could actually be designed better.
An instructional designer will
needed to ensure that the instruction is appropriate for all skill levels and
experiences
The learners is markedly at a
disadvantage whenever relevant schemas or pre requisites knowledge do not exist
Designing such as instruction could be costly and time
consuming also
major weakness of cognivitism lies on its strength where as schemas help to
make learning more meaningfu
CONCLUSION
I conclude in saying that according to those theorists
whose explaining about the theories all they pass on same things but they had the
similarities and they differ in some points because in behaviorism they focus
only on the objectively, observable aspects of learning, while in cognitive
theory they look beyond behavior to explain brain based learning. and also in
constructivism the theorists they based on learning as the process in which the
learner actively constructs or build new ideas or concept. here we see how
those theorists explaining about the different stages of learning through
teaching animals and human being like B.F.Skinner conditioning the pea got and
also piaget pass in stages of learning children’s,
Pavlovs conditioned dogs. And also when learning theory are formulatated by
conducting experiment on animals teaching theory deals by dealing with human
subject .so it seems that those theory are working together are like same
coins.
REFFERENCE
1.Allyn
and Bacon, inc: Curriculum
Improvement. Decision Making and Process
(1970)
2. Bourne
E Lyle, Jr Br Bruce R Esktrand (1993) Psychology University of Colorado.
3.Dawson
Rudd ell (1990) The element of
Journal Newyork
4.Dr. Renu
malaviya ( ) Creating a Learning
Environment, Child Development and Pedagogical issues. Delhi- India.
5. Lahey B
Benjamin (2004) Introduction to
Psychology Published in Newyork.
6.
Lenfrancois R.Guy (1972) Theory of
Human Learning An International Thomson Publishing Company.
7.William
N. December and james J. Jenkins: General
psychology modeling Behaviour and Experience. (1970)
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