1. Identifying and Refining a Researchable Topic
or Question
2. Gathering Primary and Secondary Sources
3. Organizing Your Notes and Other Research
Information
What system
will you use to keep track of your bibliographies? Your reading notes? The
quotations, images, or other specific items that jumped out at you during the
course of research? If you are writing about a complex event that unfolds over
time, constructing a chronology can be helpful.
It can
be useful to group your materials in a way that relates to your questions and
to the story you plan to tell. Try categorizing them so you can easily recall
which are more important and which are less important.
4. Outlining
What
relevant background to your subject must your reader have to understand your
argument?
What
organizational scheme makes the most sense for your subject and intellectual
goals? Chronology is often useful in historical writing, and some historians
prize narrative writing. Thematic forms of organization are also very common
and can make a lot of sense. If your paper proceeds by way of a comparison, how
will that comparison be structured?
Are
there terms you will need to define at the outset? Characters you will need to
introduce? Periodization you will need to explain? If so, where should these
go?
Will
you be placing your subject in the context of historiography? If so, where in
the paper should this be presented? (Some historians devote considerable text
to this; some utilize footnotes.) Historiographical questions include: What are
the major interpretive debates about your subject? Who are the key commentators
on your subject? What makes your approach and argument original and different?
Outlines are good places to sketch out several kinds of “balance” in
your paper.
Balance between general context and the heart of your research. One
common error is to get so involved in telling the background story that you
forget to mention your actual subject until page 15! Aim for proportionality in
your outline. The most important themes and questions should get the most
attention and space.
Balance between more general assertions and concrete evidence and examples
to back those assertions up. Another common error is to gravitate toward either
overly general or overly detailed writing. The former results in vagueness that
cannot sustain an argument. The latter results in failure to develop an
argument at all.
Remember that evidence helps you answer
questions about who, what, where, when, and why.
Be
careful not to expect your sources to do more than they can. Use multiple
sources to support a claim you think is especially unusual or controversial.
Consider tackling the weakness of your sources directly, anticipating obvious
criticism rather than ignoring it.
5. Formulating Your Argument
What
exactly is your subject?
What
exactly is your argument (sometimes also called a “thesis”)?
Your subject
and your argument are not identical. Your argument is the original point you
are making, the result of all the thinking you have done during the course of
research. It is a claim about the significance of a historical subject (or
problem or question) and a promise that you will demonstrate that your approach
to the subject–your interpretation--is persuasive and compelling. An argument
is more than an announcement about what your subject will be. It is an
assertion about what your subject means and why it matters.
6. Writing an Introduction
The
introduction should introduce your subject, state your argument, and reveal for
the reader what you plan to accomplish in the paper.
You can
also explain briefly why the paper is organized as it is so that the reader
will know exactly what to expect. Think of the introduction as a textual map
for an intellectual journey.
7. Drafting the Body of Your Paper
8. Writing a Conclusion
Return
to your argument and remind your reader of the most compelling evidence
presented to support it.
9. Revising
Excellent papers are drafted far enough ahead of time so that you have
time to re-read, reflect, and revise–all of which will make your paper better
than it would have been without revision.
Consider asking trusted colleagues to read and comment on your work.
Think
about the overall organization of your paper. Does is flow logically and cohere
throughout? Are there bumpy spots that need reworking, better transitions, and
reorganization?
Think
about each paragraph. Does it go where you say it will go? Do you offer
concrete evidence and examples when you make general points? Is the transition
from the paragraph before smooth? Is the transition to the next paragraph
equally smooth?
Think
about each sentence: grammar, spelling, punctuation, word choice, etc. Ask
yourself if your writing is as bold and direct as possible. Be ruthless about
eliminating pompous language, jargon, and fussy constructions. They will not
impress your reader or do justice to your ideas.
10. Proofreading
Use
your computer’s spell checker, but don’t stop there.
Many
people find that it is easier to catch errors on paper than on a screen.
Try
reading your work aloud. It can be a little embarrassing at first, but it is a
great technique for zooming in on errors, weak spots, and awkward phrases.
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